Lakshmi et al. (2025) Remote Sensing-Based Monitoring of Agricultural Drought and Irrigation Adaptation Strategies in the Antalya Basin, Türkiye

Identification

• Journal: Hydrology
• Year: 2025
• Date: 2025-10-31
• Authors: V. Lakshmi, Elif Gülen KIR, Alperen Kır, Bin Fang
• DOI: 10.3390/hydrology12110288

Research Groups

• Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
• Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Türkiye
• Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Türkiye

Short Summary

This study assessed agricultural drought dynamics in the Antalya Agricultural Basin, Türkiye, from 2001 to 2023 using multiple remote sensing indices, revealing recurrent moderate summer droughts driven by minimal precipitation and high temperatures, and proposing adaptation strategies for irrigation efficiency aligned with national water management goals.

Objective

• To evaluate the temporal and spatial dynamics of agricultural drought in the Antalya Basin during 2001–2023 using multiple satellite-based indices (NDVI, NDWI, NDDI, VCI, TCI, VHI, PCI, SDCI, and SMCI) processed through Google Earth Engine (GEE).
• To provide practical insights for irrigation modernization, efficient water allocation, and drought-resilient planning in line with Türkiye’s National Water Efficiency Strategy (2023–2033).

Study Configuration

• Spatial Scale: Antalya Agricultural Basin, Türkiye
• Temporal Scale: 2001–2023 (23 years)

Methodology and Data

• Models used: Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI), Normalized Difference Drought Index (NDDI), Vegetation Condition Index (VCI), Temperature Condition Index (TCI), Vegetation Health Index (VHI), Precipitation Condition Index (PCI), Scaled Drought Composite Index (SDCI), Soil Moisture Condition Index (SMCI). All processed using Google Earth Engine (GEE).
• Data sources:
  • CHIRPS (Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Stations) precipitation data (5 km spatial resolution, daily/monthly)
  • MODIS MOD11A2.061 Terra Land Surface Temperature and Emissivity (1 km spatial resolution, 8-day/monthly)
  • MODIS MOD09A1.061 Terra Surface Reflectance (500 m spatial resolution, 8-day/monthly) for NDVI, NDWI
  • SMAP (Soil Moisture Active Passive) 1 km downscaled soil moisture data (1 km spatial resolution, daily) for 2015–2024 (used for comparative reference)
  • ERA5-Land (ECMWF global reanalysis) soil moisture data (9 km spatial resolution, hourly/monthly)
  • CORINE Land Cover (CLC) 2018
  • National Water Efficiency Strategy and Action Plan (2023–2033) from the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry of Türkiye (policy dataset)

Main Results

• The Antalya Agricultural Basin experienced recurrent moderate drought with strong seasonal and interannual variability from 2001 to 2023.
• Summer was consistently the most drought-prone season, characterized by average precipitation of 5.5 mm, a Precipitation Condition Index (PCI) of 1.1, a Scaled Drought Composite Index (SDCI) of 15.6, and a Soil Moisture Condition Index (SMCI) of 38.4. Land surface temperatures (LST) averaged above 30 °C during summer.
• Winter exhibited recharge conditions, with average precipitation of 197 mm, a PCI of 40.9, an SDCI of 57.3, and an SMCI of 89.6. LST averaged near 10 °C during winter.
• The year 2008 was identified as the driest year, with a PCI of 9.8 and an SDCI of 30.0, and six out of seven indices indicating drought during the summer season.
• The years 2009, 2012, and 2015 were identified as wet or recovery years across most indices.
• Vegetation stress was also notable in 2016 and 2018.
• Correlation analysis revealed strong coherence among PCI, SDCI, TCI, VHI, and SMCI, particularly during summer (e.g., SDCI–VHI: r = 0.99; SDCI–TCI: r = 0.90; SDCI–SMCI: r = 0.89), confirming that drought stress is simultaneously expressed through temperature, soil moisture, and vegetation responses.
• The Normalized Difference Drought Index (NDDI) showed relatively weak correlations with other indices (annual r ≤ 0.09), indicating its distinct sensitivity to short-term surface moisture fluctuations.

Contributions

• Provides a comprehensive, multi-source remote sensing framework for monitoring agricultural drought dynamics (vegetation, thermal, precipitation, soil moisture) at the basin level in a semi-arid Mediterranean region.
• Integrates scientific drought detection with national water management strategies, specifically linking findings to Türkiye’s National Water Efficiency Strategy (2023–2033).
• Offers practical insights and recommended adaptation measures, such as deficit irrigation techniques (TDI, PRD), irrigation infrastructure modernization, SCADA-based automation, and real-time meteorological and soil moisture data integration, to enhance water efficiency and agricultural resilience.
• Highlights the importance of seasonal-scale analysis over annual means for accurately representing agricultural drought patterns in Mediterranean climates.

Funding

This research received no external funding. The article processing charge (APC) was fully waived by Hydrology (MDPI) through an APC voucher provided to Venkataraman Lakshmi.

Citation

@article{Lakshmi2025Remote,
  author = {Lakshmi, V. and KIR, Elif Gülen and Kır, Alperen and Fang, Bin},
  title = {Remote Sensing-Based Monitoring of Agricultural Drought and Irrigation Adaptation Strategies in the Antalya Basin, Türkiye},
  journal = {Hydrology},
  year = {2025},
  doi = {10.3390/hydrology12110288},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology12110288}
}

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