Wit et al. (2026) Subsurface Irrigation in Regional Water Management: a System Dynamics Approach to Support Decision Making

Identification

• Journal: Water Resources Management
• Year: 2026
• Date: 2026-02-01
• Authors: Janine de Wit, Jos Cornelis Van Dam, Tom H.H. Heijmans, Marjolein H.J. van Huijgevoort, COEN J. RITSEMA, Ruud Bartholomeus
• DOI: 10.1007/s11269-025-04393-2

Research Groups

• KWR Water Research Institute, Nieuwegein, Netherlands
• Soil Physics and Land Management, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
• Water management authority Limburg, Roermond, Netherlands
• Institute for Environmental Studies, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands

Short Summary

This study developed a system dynamics model (SDM) to simulate the non-linear hydrological impacts of upscaling controlled drainage with subirrigation (CDSI) from local to regional scales, demonstrating its utility as a decision support tool for water management authorities in assessing feasibility and supporting decision-making.

Objective

• To investigate to what extent regional upscaling of Controlled Drainage with Subirrigation (CDSI) can be supported in relation to surface water availability, using a system dynamics model (SDM).
• To identify how an SDM can support decision making of water management authorities.

Study Configuration

• Spatial Scale: Regional scale (total area of 3,500,000 m²), with upscaling of field-scale CDSI systems (e.g., 1% to 99% of the total area) based on an experimental site in the Dutch sandy Pleistocene uplands (51º27’N, 5º57’E).
• Temporal Scale: Multi-year simulations (e.g., 2013–2022) with a daily time step.

Methodology and Data

• Models used:
  • System Dynamics Model (SDM) developed in Vensim (version: Vensim PLE Plus 9.0.1 × 64) to simulate hydrological fluxes and water levels.
  • Agro-hydrological field scale model SWAP (version 4.0.1) used for validation of the SDM's base run.
• Data sources:
  • Field experiment data from a CDSI site in the Dutch sandy Pleistocene uplands (2017–2024).
  • Meteorological data (precipitation and reference evapotranspiration) from the Arcen weather station (Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute).
  • Soil characteristics: ‘weak loamy, very fine to moderately fine sandy’ soil (‘O02’ soil).
  • Regional characteristics and input parameters (e.g., ditch depth, initial surface water level) from Water management authority Limburg.

Main Results

• The developed SDM accurately simulated CDSI patterns and hydrological fluxes, showing acceptable performance when compared to the SWAP model (Kling-Gupta Efficiency of 0.95 and Root Mean Square Error of 31.9 mm for subirrigation; RMSE of 0.19 m for groundwater level).
• CDSI upscaling exhibits non-linear propagation of hydrological fluxes, with its effectiveness strongly limited by regional surface water availability.
• Three distinct phases of CDSI upscaling were identified:
  1. Phase 1 (e.g., 1% to 20% CDSI area): Sufficient surface water is available, leading to increased subirrigation and ditch drainage with minimal impact on regional surface water levels.
  2. Phase 2 (e.g., 20% to 30% CDSI area): Water is still sufficient, but the ditch level drops sharply, increasing ditch drainage and water demand for subirrigation, thereby enhancing the impact on regional water availability.
  3. Phase 3 (e.g., 30% to 99% CDSI area): Surface water availability becomes a limiting factor, restricting subirrigation, lowering groundwater levels, reducing actual evapotranspiration, and decreasing ditch drainage and downward seepage, rendering CDSI largely unbeneficial for crops.
• The limitations of CDSI upscaling are significantly influenced by geohydrological characteristics (e.g., drainage resistance), field-scale water management (e.g., preferable groundwater level), and regional water management strategies (e.g., surface water inflow, weir management, minimum ditch level).

Contributions

• Presents the first System Dynamics Model (SDM) specifically designed to assess the regional upscaling of Controlled Drainage with Subirrigation (CDSI).
• Demonstrates the SDM's capability to capture and visualize non-linear feedbacks within the water system (surface water-groundwater, groundwater-unsaturated zone), which is crucial for understanding regional hydrological impacts of CDSI.
• Offers a computationally efficient and transparent decision support tool for early-stage strategic planning and facilitating stakeholder discussions regarding the feasibility and hydrological consequences of CDSI upscaling.
• Identifies and characterizes three critical phases of CDSI upscaling based on regional water availability, providing a framework for managing implementation risks.
• Highlights the importance of integrating both regional water management strategies and local farmer practices for successful and sustainable CDSI upscaling.

Funding

This work is partly based on knowledge obtained from the WiCE, Lumbricus, KLIMAP, and FARMWISE projects, with the FARMWISE project funded by the EU in the Horizon Europe framework program (grant agreement 101135533).

Citation

@article{Wit2026Subsurface,
  author = {Wit, Janine de and Dam, Jos Cornelis Van and Heijmans, Tom H.H. and Huijgevoort, Marjolein H.J. van and RITSEMA, COEN J. and Bartholomeus, Ruud},
  title = {Subsurface Irrigation in Regional Water Management: a System Dynamics Approach to Support Decision Making},
  journal = {Water Resources Management},
  year = {2026},
  doi = {10.1007/s11269-025-04393-2},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-025-04393-2}
}