Islam et al. (2026) Modeling evapotranspiration in diverse climatic zones of Pakistan using Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) through geospatial technologies

Identification

• Journal: Scientific Reports
• Year: 2026
• Date: 2026-02-24
• Authors: Aneeza Islam, Syeda Maria Ali, Eman Rafi Alamery, Khadeijah Yahya Faqeih, Maha Abdullah Aldhobaihy, Somayah Moshrif Alamri, Iftikhar Ali
• DOI: 10.1038/s41598-026-39756-1

Research Groups

• Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Sciences, International Islamic University Islamabad, Pakistan
• Department of Geography and Environmental Sustainability, College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
• Projects Wing PPMI Complex Islamabad, Ministry of Planning Development & Special Initiatives, Pakistan

Short Summary

This study utilized the SEBAL model with Landsat imagery and meteorological data to estimate actual evapotranspiration (ET) and assess its spatiotemporal variations across Pakistan's diverse climatic zones, revealing significant environmental degradation and increased climatic stress linked to urbanization.

Objective

• To estimate actual evapotranspiration (ET) and assess its spatiotemporal variations across Pakistan's major climatic zones.
• To understand ET dynamics for sustainable land and water resource management in a rapidly urbanizing and climate-vulnerable country.

Study Configuration

• Spatial Scale: Major climatic zones of Pakistan.
• Temporal Scale: Years 1989, 1999, 2009, and 2019.

Methodology and Data

• Models used: Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) implemented in ERDAS Imagine.
• Data sources: Landsat 7, 8, and 9 satellite imageries; meteorological data from the Pakistan Meteorological Department.

Main Results

• A consistent rise in Land Surface Temperature (LST) was observed over the years 1989, 1999, 2009, and 2019.
• Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) showed a decline after 2009, accompanied by decreasing surface albedo and fluctuating net radiation, indicating intensified urbanization and surface degradation.
• Estimated ET values ranged from 4.67 to 7.33 mm/day.
• A pronounced decline was found in very high (6.94–7.33 mm/day), high (6.55–6.93 mm/day), and moderate (6.16–6.54 mm/day) ET zones by 2019.
• Concurrently, there was a substantial expansion of the low (5.77–6.15 mm/day) and very low (4.67–5.76 mm/day) ET zones by 2019, highlighting extensive vegetation degradation, accelerated urban expansion, and increasing climatic stress.

Contributions

• Demonstrated the strong applicability and reliability of the SEBAL model for long-term environmental monitoring in data-scarce regions.
• Provided insights to guide sustainable urban development and strengthen climate resilience.
• Supported integrated land–water management and informed adaptive policy frameworks.
• Advanced scientific understanding of land–atmosphere interactions in the context of Pakistan’s evolving climatic and urban challenges.

Funding

• Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project number (PNURSP2025R911), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Citation

@article{Islam2026Modeling,
  author = {Islam, Aneeza and Ali, Syeda Maria and Alamery, Eman Rafi and Faqeih, Khadeijah Yahya and Aldhobaihy, Maha Abdullah and Alamri, Somayah Moshrif and Ali, Iftikhar},
  title = {Modeling evapotranspiration in diverse climatic zones of Pakistan using Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) through geospatial technologies},
  journal = {Scientific Reports},
  year = {2026},
  doi = {10.1038/s41598-026-39756-1},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-39756-1}
}

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