Broekhoven et al. (2026) Changes in groundwater-surface water interactions following two centuries of irrigation practices and groundwater use in the Upper Ganges-Yamuna interfluve, North India

Identification

• Journal: Hydrology and earth system sciences
• Year: 2026
• Date: 2026-10-15
• Authors: Frank J. G. van Broekhoven, Stefan C. Dekker, Jasper Griffioen, Anjali Bhagwat, P.P. Schot
• DOI: 10.5194/hess-30-6315-2026

Research Groups

• Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
• NIOO-KNAW, the Netherlands Institute of Ecology, Wageningen, the Netherlands
• TNO Geological Survey of the Netherlands, Utrecht, the Netherlands
• Groundwater Hydrology Division, National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, India

Short Summary

This study quantifies two centuries of changes in groundwater recharge and abstraction in the Upper Ganges-Yamuna interfluve, North India, revealing a hydrological regime shift. Initially, canal construction (post-1830) increased groundwater levels and discharge to rivers, but intensive groundwater abstraction (post-1970) has since lowered groundwater tables below pre-canal conditions, leading to local rivers shifting from draining to infiltrating conditions around 2000.

Objective

• Quantify the spatio-temporal evolution of groundwater recharge and abstraction components over two centuries (pre-1830 to 2016) and assess their impacts on groundwater tables and groundwater-surface water interactions in the Upper Ganges-Yamuna interfluve, North India.

Study Configuration

• Spatial Scale: Upper Ganges-Yamuna interfluve, North India (western Uttar Pradesh and southern Uttarakhand), covering approximately 16 500 square kilometers. Modeled with a 1000 meter by 1000 meter grid.
• Temporal Scale: Two centuries, from 1800 to 2016, simulated in yearly time steps with a 100-year warm-up period.

Methodology and Data

• Models used: MODFLOW 6 (groundwater flow model), Flopy Python package, Monte Carlo method for uncertainty analysis.
• Data sources: Satellite imagery (HydroSHEDS DEM, Copernicus Global Land Cover), observation well data (groundwater levels), reanalysis climate data (CRU TS for rainfall and potential evapotranspiration), census data (population, irrigated agriculture), national groundwater withdrawal rates, literature-based parameters (crop coefficients, per capita water usage, canal leakage factors, irrigation return flow factors), industrial discharge data, and canal network datasets.

Main Results

• The Upper Ganges-Yamuna interfluve experienced a hydrological regime shift over two centuries.
• From 1830 to 1970, canal construction led to increased groundwater recharge and a rise in median groundwater tables by 0.5 to 1.0 meter, enhancing groundwater exfiltration to rivers.
• Post-1970, rapid increases in groundwater abstraction, primarily for irrigation (80-85%), caused groundwater tables to decline significantly, reaching a median depth of 10 meters by 2016 (compared to 7.5-8.0 meters pre-1830).
• Around 2000, local rivers, particularly the Hindon River network, largely shifted from draining groundwater to infiltrating river water into the aquifer.
• The main Ganges and Yamuna rivers also show reduced groundwater exfiltration but still maintain a net exfiltrating condition.
• Current primary recharge sources are rainfall (50-80%) and irrigation return flow (10-25%), while irrigation dominates abstraction.

Contributions

• Provides a two-century (1800-2016) spatio-temporal hindcast of groundwater recharge, abstraction components, and their impacts on groundwater-surface water interactions in the Upper Ganges-Yamuna interfluve, addressing a gap in long-term historical analysis for the region.
• Quantifies the relative contributions of various recharge (rainfall, canal leakage, irrigation/municipal return flow) and abstraction (irrigation, municipal, industrial) components to groundwater dynamics.
• Reveals a hydrological regime shift where local rivers transitioned from draining to infiltrating conditions around 2000, contrasting with previous regional studies for main rivers.
• Offers a basis for understanding historical system behavior, crucial for setting realistic restoration objectives and informing sustainable groundwater management strategies.

Funding

• Cleaning the Ganga, Agri-Water project
• Dutch Research Council (NWO) Merian Fund (grant no. 482.20.309)
• Indian Department of Science and Technology (DST)

Citation

@article{Broekhoven2026Changes,
  author = {Broekhoven, Frank J. G. van and Dekker, Stefan C. and Griffioen, Jasper and Bhagwat, Anjali and Schot, P.P.},
  title = {Changes in groundwater-surface water interactions following two centuries of irrigation practices and groundwater use in the Upper Ganges-Yamuna interfluve, North India},
  journal = {Hydrology and earth system sciences},
  year = {2026},
  doi = {10.5194/hess-30-6315-2026},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-30-6315-2026}
}